Roman chronology from the foundation of Rome to the end of the Roman Empire.
8th-4th centuries BC
814: date of the contemporary foundation of Rome and Carthage according to Timaeus.
753: date of the foundation of Rome according to Varro. Year from which the years ab Urbe condita (from the foundation of Rome) run.
751: date of the foundation of Rome according to Cato.
747: date of the foundation of Rome according to Fabio Pittore.
728: date of the foundation of Rome according to Cincius Alimentus.
716: Death of Romulus according to tradition.
535: Death of Servius Tullius
534-510: monarchy of Tarquinius Superbus, last king of Rome.
509: end of the Etruscan monarchy in Rome
– election of the first two consuls of the Republic: Brutus and Collatinus
– dedication of the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus
– first treaty between Rome and Carthage
499 or 496: Battle between Romans and Latins at Lake Regillus
494: struggles in Rome between patricians and plebeians
– Menenius Agrippa and the first secession of the plebs on the Sacred Mount
– creation of the tribunes of the plebs
493: the consul Spurius Cassius stipulates the so-called Foedus Cassianum with the Latins.
477: Roman defeat on the Cremera river in the first war against the Etruscan Veii.
451-450: The decemvirs begin drafting the Laws of the Twelve Tables.
449-448: war of the Romans against the Aequi, the Volsci and the Sabines.
447: establishment of the police headquarters.
445: the Canuleia law abolishes the ban on marriage between patricians and plebeians.
444: abolition of the consulate and establishment of military tribunes with consular power (tribuni militum consulari potestate).
443: Establishment of censorship.
431: Roman victory over the Aequi at Mount Algidus.
426: capture of Fidenae and its incorporation into the Roman state.
406-396: war against Veii and capture of the city.
390: Battle on the Allia River and capture of Rome by the Gauls led by Brennus.
367: Licinian-Sextian laws:
– admission of plebeians to the consulate
– agrarian law
– institution of the praetorship.
354: Treaty between Rome and the Samnites
348: second treaty between Rome and Carthage.
343-341: First Samnite War:
– Roman victory in the two battles fought at Gauro and Saticula.
340-338: Latin War fought between Rome and the Latin League:
– 340: Roman victory at the Battle of Trifano
– 339: Roman victory at the Battle of Campi Fenectani
338: Rome dissolves the Latin League and establishes bilateral alliances with individual Latin cities
– Deduction of the Roman colony of Anzio (Antium).
329: deduction of the Roman colony of Terracina (Tarracina).
326-304: Second Samnite War:
– 321: Roman army capitulates at the Caudine Forks
– 315: Roman defeat at Lautulae, near Terracina
– 314: Fabius Rullianus obtains the first Roman victory at Terracina
– 313: Latin colonies of Saticula and Suessa are founded
– 312: Latin colonies of Interamna and Ponza are founded
– 312: Appius Claudius builds the Appian Way
– 311: Fabius Rullianus expeditions north of the Cimini Mountains to contain the Etruscan threat
– 310: Fabius Rullianus defeats the Etruscans at Lake Vadimone
– 305: Romans probably capture Bovianum
– 304: the Samnites sign the peace.
306: third treaty between Rome and Carthage.
304: deduction of the Latin colony of Alba Fucens.
303: treaty between Rome and the Greek colony of Taranto: the Romans must not sail beyond Cape Lacinium, near Crotone.
3rd century BC
299: deduction of the Latin colony of Carseoli
– pact with the Lucanians
298-290: Third Samnite War:
– 295: Battle of Sentinum and Roman victory over the coalition of Samnites, Etruscans, Umbrians and Senones Gauls.
– 295: Deduction of the Roman colonies of Minturnae and Sinuessa.
– 293: Roman victory at Aquilonia
– 291: Deduction of the Latin colony of Venosa (Venusia)
– 290: Expedition of Manius Curio Dentatus and peace with the Samnites
– Deduction of the Latin colony of Atri (Hatria) and the Roman colony of Giulianova (Castrum Novum).
285-283: war against the Gauls
– 283: the Senones and Boii Gauls are defeated at Lake Vadimone.
289 or 283: deduction of the Roman colony of Senigallia (Sena Gallica).
280-275: war against Pyrrhus, the so-called Tarentine War
– 280: Pyrrhus’ victory at Heraclea
– 279: Pyrrhus’ victory at Asculum in Puglia
– 278: new treaty between Rome and Carthage
– 275: Roman victory at Malevento, later called Benevento by the Romans (for auspicious purposes).
272: submission of Taranto.
270: Rome conquers Reggio.
269-268: victorious war against the Picenti and almost complete annexation of Piceno (excluding Ancona and Ascoli Piceno).
268: deduction of the Latin colonies of Rimini (Ariminum) and Benevento (Beneventum).
266: the Romans complete the subjugation of the Italian peninsula, giving birth to a Roman-Latin-Italic alliance under Roman hegemony.
264: deduction of the Latin colony of Fermo (Firmum).
264-241: First Punic War
– 262: Roman siege and capture of Agrigento
– 260: naval victory of the Roman Gaius Duilius at Milazzo
– 256: victory of the Roman fleet at the promontory of Ecnomus
– 255: defeat and humiliation of Atilius Regulus in Africa
– 241: decisive victory of the consul Gaius Lutatius Catulus at the Egadi Islands.
238-237: conquest of Sardinia and Corsica by Rome.
232: plebiscite of Gaius Flaminius for the Viritan distribution of the Gallic and Piceno countryside.
227: creation of the first two provinces: Sicily and Sardinia-Corsica.
225-222: Gallic war against the Gauls Boii and Insubres:
– 225: victory of the Gauls at Chiusi
– 225: Roman victory of the consul Gaius Atilius at Talamone
– 223: Roman victory of the consul Gaius Flaminius near the river Oglio
– 222: final victory of the consul Marcus Claudius Marcellus at Casteggio (Clastidium).
221: First Istrian War.
220: Roman expedition to the Alps (Carnian and Julian).
219: Subjugation of Illyria by Rome.
218: Claudius plebiscite on the trade of senators
– deduction of the Latin colonies of Piacenza (Placentia) and Cremona (Cremona).
218-201: Second Punic War:
– 218: Hannibal’s victories at Ticino and Trebbia
– 217: Hannibal’s victory at Lake Trasimene
– 216: Hannibal’s victory at Cannae
– 213-211: Siege and capture of Capua
– 211: Siege and capture of Syracuse
212-205: First Macedonian War
– 211: Hannibal marches towards Rome
– 210: Publius Cornelius Scipio (the future Africanus) reaps success in Spain
– 207: Hasdrubal’s defeat at the Metaurus
– 205: end of the First Macedonian War and Peace of Phoenix
– 205: Publius Cornelius Scipio (the future Africanus) is elected consul and takes the war to Africa
– 203: Hannibal abandons Italy
– 202: Battle of Zama: Publius Cornelius Scipio (the future Africanus) defeats Hannibal
– 201: Peace concluded between Rome and Carthage.
203-191: reconquest of Cisalpine Gaul.
2nd century BC
200-197: Second Macedonian War
– 197: Roman victory at Cynoscephalae
– 196: Titus Quinctius Flamininus proclaims the freedom of all Greece in the Isthmian Games at Corinth.
192-189: Syrian War (against Antiochus III of Syria)
– 189: Roman victory at the Battle of Magnesia
– 188: Peace of Apamea
189: deduction of the Latin colony of Bologna (Bononia).
183: deduction of the Roman colonies of Modena (Mutina) and Parma (Parma).
181: deduction of the Latin colony of Aquileia.
180: deduction of the Latin colony of Lucca (Luca).
178-177: Istrian War.
177: deduction of the Roman colony of Luni (Luna).
171-168: Third Macedonian War
– 168: Battle of Pydna in which Lucius Aemilius Paullus defeats the Macedonian king Perseus.
149-146: Third Punic War
148: Macedonia is reduced to a Roman province.
146: Carthage and Corinth are razed to the ground.
135-132: First slave revolt in Sicily.
133: destruction of Numantia
– Pergamum is left as an inheritance to the Romans
– Tiberius Gracchus and the agrarian question: killing of the tribune.
125-120: conquest of southern Gaul (Provence).
123-121: tribunate and death of Gaius Gracchus.
113: the consul Papirius Carbone is defeated by the Cimbri at Noreia.
111-105: Jugurthine War
– 107: Gaius Marius consul for the first time (army reform: for the first time volunteers are enlisted among the proletariat): Jugurtha is repeatedly defeated
– 105: Jugurtha is taken to Rome where he is executed: the war ends.
104-100: Second slave revolt in Sicily.
102-101: Gaius Marius defeats the Teutons at Aquae Sestiae and the Cimbri at Campi Raudi.
1st century BC
91: tribunate of Marcus Livius Drusus and his death.
90-88: Revolt of the Italics (Social War).
88-85: First Mithridatic War (against Mithridates king of Pontus).
88: Rome is captured by Sulla; Marius is forced to flee.
87: Sulla leaves for Greece. Marian revolt in Rome.
86: Death of Mario.
83-82: Civil War in Italy. Battle of Porta Collina.
81-80: dictatorship of Sulla.
80-72: Sertorius’ revolt in Spain.
78: Death of Sulla.
74-63: Mithridatic War.
73-71: Spartacus revolt.
70: consulate of Pompey and Crassus.
67: Pompey and the war against the pirates.
66: Pompey against Mithridates.
66-63: Pompey in the East.
– Defeat of Mithridates and new territorial arrangement
– Capture of Jerusalem.
63: Cicero consul.
– The conspiracy of Catiline .
62: Death of Catiline.
– Gaius Julius Caesar praetor.
– Pompey returns triumphant from the East.
60: the so-called first triumvirate between Pompey, Crassus and Caesar.
59: Caesar consul.
58-50: Caesar governor of Cisalpine Gaul and Illyricum, to which Narbonensis Gaul is later added.
56: renewal of the triumvirate in Lucca.
55: Pompey and Crassus consuls.
53: Battle of Carrhae and death of Crassus against the Parthians.
52: Pompey consul without colleague.
49: Caesar crosses the Rubicon: It’s civil war. Pompey flees to the East.
48: Battle of Pharsalus. Pompey, defeated, flees to Egypt where he is killed by King Ptolemy.
47: Caesar defeats Pharnaces, king of Pontus.
46: The Pompeians are defeated at Thapsus.
45: the last Pompeians are defeated at Munda.
44: Death of Caesar
– Caesar’s assassins Brutus and Cassius flee to the East
– Antony appears to be Caesar’s moral heir
– Young Octavian (adoptive son of the divine Julius) enters the scene.
43: war of Modena between Octavian (allied with the two consuls of the year, Hirtius and Pansa) and Antony
– agreement between the two enemies
– second triumvirate between Antony, Octavian and Lepidus
– proscriptions and death of Cicero.
42: Battle of Philippi: Antony’s army defeats Brutus and Cassius
– Death of Brutus and Cassius.
37: Taranto agreement. Renewal of the triumvirate.
35-33: Octavian’s expedition against the Carni, the Giapids, the Dalmatians and the peoples of Pannonia.
32: Antony, who has already married Cleopatra, officially repudiates Octavia, Octavian’s sister.
– There is open war between Antony and Octavian
– Coniuratio Italiae and declaration of war on Cleopatra.
31: Octavian defeats Mark Antony and Cleopatra in the naval battle of Actium.
30: Death of Antony and Cleopatra. Egypt is annexed to the Roman state as a province under the direct control of Octavian, who administers it through a prefect of equestrian rank. In the Balkans, the proconsul Marcus Licinius Crassus, nephew of the triumvir Crassus, subjugates the peoples of Dardania.
29: The prefect of Egypt Cornelius Gallus makes an expedition to the Thebaid.
28 : Aquitaine, conquered by Caesar, is definitively “pacified”.
27: Octavian is given the title of Augustus. First government structure.
The Roman Empire
Augustus [(43 BC) 23 BC-14 AD]
27-24: Augustus’ expedition to Asturia and Cantabria.
26-25: After a Salassi revolt is put down, the colony of Augusta Praetoria (Aosta) is founded.
25: The Ethiopians who had invaded Upper Egypt are repelled by the prefect of Egypt Gaius Petronius who advances into the heart of Africa.
24: Expedition of the prefect of Egypt Aelius Gallus to Arabia Felix (present-day Yemen).
20: The king of the Parthians returns the standards and prisoners taken in the battle of Carrhae (57 BC) and formally asks for the friendship of the Romans.
19: Agrippa subdues the Cantabrians and the Astures.
16: The Germans Sigambri, Usipetes and Tencteri cross the Rhine and annihilate the legion commanded by the legate Marcus Lollius. In the Alpine region, Publius Silius Nerva subjugates the Camunni, the Trumplini and the Vennoni.
16-14: Drusus and Tiberius, sons of the first marriage of Livia, Augustus’ wife, subjugate the Raeti, the Vindelici, the people of the Pennine Valley and the Ligurian peoples of the Maritime Alps. Noricum and the Cottian Alps are also annexed to the Empire.
14-13: Agricola’s military campaign in Pannonia.
12-11: Tiberius’ military campaign in Pannonia and Dalmatia.
12-11: Drusus’ expedition to Germany.
8-7: Tiberius advances into Germany as far as the Elbe.
4-6: Tiberius reaches the Elbe from the south, imposes peace on Maroboduus king of the Marcomanni, and, having recrossed the Danube, descends into the Balkan peninsula.
6-8: The revolt of the peoples of Pannonia and Dalmatia is suppressed.
9: In the Teutoburg Forest Arminius, leader of the Cherusci, annihilates the three legions of the legate Quintilius Varus.
10-12: Tiberius conducts a defensive military campaign on the Rhine.
14: Upon the death of Augustus, Tiberius, who had been given the same consular imperium as Augustus, ascends to the throne.
Tiberius (14-37)
14: After Tiberius’ accession to the throne, the legions stationed along the Danube and the Rhine revolt, but are brought back to order by the emperor’s son, Drusus (II), and by Germanicus, the son of Drusus (I).
15-16: Germanicus, having restored order in the legions, enters Germany
17-24: Revolt of the Moorish chieftains led by Tacfarinas
27: Tiberius retreats to Capri.
37: Upon the death of Tiberius, Caligula, the youngest son of Germanicus, ascends to the throne.
Caligula (37-41)
39-40: The emperor plans an expedition in Gaul to conquer Britain.
41: Caligula falls victim to a conspiracy, carried out with the support of the Praetorians.
Claudius (41-54)
41: The Praetorians impose the nomination of Claudius, Caligula’s paternal uncle, as emperor.
42: In Dalmatia the revolt of the legate Camillus Scribonianus is suppressed. Mauretania, divided into two provinces, is annexed to the Empire.
43: Conquest of Britain. In the east, Lycia becomes a Roman province.
47: Claudius assumes the censorship. The legate of Lower Germany Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo represses the revolts of the Chauci and the Frisi.
50: The legate of Upper Germany Publius Pomponius Secundus repelles an incursion by the Chatti.
52: An uprising in Judea is put down.
53: The administration of the imperial goods is entrusted to the procurators. The procuratorial provinces of Noricum and Raetia, Vindelicia and the Pennine Valley are established.
54: Death of Claudius, perhaps poisoned by his wife Agrippina.
Nero (54-68)
54: The Praetorians acclaim Nero, Agrippina’s son, as emperor.
58-60: Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo defeats the Parthians and conquers Armenia.
61: In Britain, the revolt of the Celtic queen Boudicca is crushed.
62: The legate Tiberius Plautius Silvanus Aelianus defeats the Dacians and the Bastarnae.
65: The anti-Nero conspiracy of Gaius Calpurnius Piso is foiled.
67: Flavius Vespasian is sent to Judea to suppress a revolt.
68: The legate of Lugdunensis Gaul, Julius Vindex, rebels against Nero, followed by the legate of Tarraconensis Spain, Servius Sulpicius Galba, and that of Lusitania, Marcus Salvius Otho. Declared a “public enemy” by the Senate, Nero commits suicide.
Galba (68-69)
69: The legions encamped on the Rhine acclaim their commander VITELLIUS as emperor. Galba is killed by the Praetorians who hail OTHO as emperor. Otho, defeated at Bedriacum by Vitellius, commits suicide.
Vespasian (69-79)
69: The Egyptian legions acclaim Vespasian as emperor, with whom all the Roman governors and all the client kings of the East side. The Vespasian legate Antonius Primus, who entered Italy at the head of the legions stationed in Pannonia, defeats Vitellius in the second battle of Bedriacum and conquers the peninsula.
70: Vespasian’s son, Titus, left in Judea, conquers Jerusalem.
71: In Rome, Vespasian and his sons Titus and Domitian celebrate the triumph over the Jews.
72: The province of Cilicia is established.
74-84: The conquest of Britain is completed.
79: Upon Vespasian’s death, his son Titus ascends to the throne.
Titus (79-81)
79: Eruption of Vesuvius and destruction of Pompeii, Herculaneum and Stabiae.
80: The Flavian Amphitheatre (Colosseum) is inaugurated.
81: Upon Titus’ death, his brother Domitian succeeds him.
Domitian (81-96)
83-85: Expedition against the Chatti.
85-88: The Dacians cross the Danube and invade Moesia.
89: Expedition against the Quadi and the Marcomanni was unsuccessful.
90: The defense of the Rhine area is reorganized (agri decumates).
92: The Sarmatians destroy a legion stationed on the Danube.
96: Domitian is killed in a palace conspiracy supported by the Senate.
Nerva (96-98)
96: Senator Nerva is proclaimed emperor.
97: Nerva adopts and associates Trajan, legate of Upper Germany, to the throne.
Trajan (98-117)
101-102: First Dacian War: Trajan conquers the Dacian capital, Sarmizegetusa, and forces their king, Decebalus, to surrender.
105-106: Trajan conquers Arabia Petraea.
105-106: II Dacian War: definitive annexation of Dacia.
114: Annexation of Armenia
116: Expedition against the Parthians: Trajan crosses the Tigris, conquers Assyria and reaches the Persian Gulf.
117: Having left the direction of the war to his adopted son Hadrian, Trajan returns to Rome. He dies in Selinunte in Cilicia.
Hadrian (117-138)
117: Hadrian is hailed emperor by the army at Antioch.
122: Hadrian’s Wall is built in Britain.
132-135: The Jewish revolt led by Simon Bar Kohba is put down by the Romans. Destruction of Jerusalem and beginning of the Jewish diaspora.
138: Upon Hadrian’s death, he is succeeded by his adopted son, Antoninus Pius
Antoninus Pius (138-161)
139: Victory over the Brigantes, a people of northern Britain.
157-158: Military operations against the Dacian tribes that remained independent from Rome.
159: Reorganization of Dacia, divided into three provinces: Dacia Porolissensis, Dacia Apulensis and Dacia Malvensis
Marcus Aurelius (161-180)
Lucius Verus (161-169)
161: Marcus Aurelius, already associated to power by Antoninus in 147, in turn associates his adoptive brother Lucius Verus to the kingdom.
161-166: Lucius Verus defeats the Parthians and destroys Seleucia and Ctesiphon.
164-165: The plague spreads from Seleucia to Italy and the western provinces.
167: The Quadi and the Marcomanni, having overwhelmed the defenses on the Danube, penetrate into Italy where they besiege Aquileia and destroy Oderzo.
169-175: The war against the Quadi, the Marcomanni and the Sarmatians must be interrupted to deal with the usurpation of the general Avidius Cassius in the East.
177: The Marcomanni resume hostilities. The plague spreads through the Empire.
180: Marcus Aurelius dies of plague in Vienna. His son Commodus succeeds him to the throne.
Commodus (180-192)
184: A Caledonian incursion into Britain is stopped.
192: Commodus falls victim to a palace conspiracy.
Pertinax (192-193)
192: Pertinax, already prefect of the city, is first acclaimed emperor and then killed by the Praetorians who, in fact, sell the imperial title at auction. The highest bidder is DIDIUS JULIANUS (193). In the meantime, the legions of Syria proclaim PESCENNIUS NIGRUS emperor (193-194) and those of Pannonia acclaim their commander Septimius Severus. Severus recognizes the title of Caesar to the legate of Britain Clodius Albinus.
Septimius Severus (193-211)
193: Septimius Severus enters Italy through the eastern Alps. In Rome the Senate deposes and executes Didius Julianus.
194: Severus defeats and captures Pescennius Niger at Issus.
196: Victory over the Parthians and conquest of Mesopotamia and Osroene.
197: Septimius Severus defeats Clodius Albinus in Lyon
197-198: The war against the Parthians ends with the capitulation of their capital Ctesiphon.
207-211: Septimius Severus personally intervenes in Britain to counter the incursions of the peoples of present-day Scotland and conquer the entire island.
211: The Emperor dies at York.
Caracalla (211-217)
Geta (211-212)
212: Caracalla has his brother Geta killed. The emperor grants Roman citizenship to all subjects of the Empire with the Constitutio Antoniniana.
213: Victorious expedition against the Alamanni in Rhaetia.
215: Introduction of the antoninianus, a coin with a nominal value of two denarii but an actual weight of one and a half denarii.
217: Caracalla is killed near Carrhae while preparing an expedition against the Parthians.
Macrinus (217-218)
217: The praetorian prefect Macrinus is acclaimed emperor by the soldiers in the East. The Parthians defeat him near Nisibis.
218: Macrinus concludes an unfavorable peace with the Parthians. The soldiers proclaim Elagabalus, the nephew of Julia Maesa, sister of Julia Domna, mother of Caracalla, as emperor. Macrinus, defeated near Antioch, is killed during his flight westward.
Elagabalus (218-222)
219 : The emperor introduced the cult of the god Baal to Rome, of which he was high priest.
222: Elagabalus is killed by the Praetorians who hail his cousin Severus Alexander as emperor
Severus Alexander (222-235)
230: The Persians, having replaced the Parthians in control of eastern Iran, invade Mesopotamia.
232: Severus Alexander’s expedition against the Persians ends in a general retreat of the Roman army.
233: The Alamanni take advantage of the weakening of Roman defenses on the Rhine and Danube due to the war against the Persians.
235: Alexander, unable to resolve the war with the Alamanni, is killed in Mainz by his soldiers.
Maximinus “the Thracian” (235-238)
235: Maximinus, an officer in charge of training recruits, is acclaimed emperor in Mainz.
236-237: The emperor, using Sirmium as his base, carries out successful expeditions against the Sarmatians Iazyges.
238: Hostile to Maximinus – busy in Sirmium preparing a military campaign on the Danube against the Germans -, the Senate ratifies the nomination of two African landowners as emperors: GORDIAN I and GORDIAN II (son of the former). Following the violent death of the Gordians (at the hands of the military commander of Numidia), the Senate takes charge of the revolt against Maximinus: 1) it appoints the senators PUPIENUS and BALBINUS as emperors, alongside whom it places GORDIAN III, the thirteen-year-old nephew of the deceased Gordian I; 2) it arranges for the defense of Italy with the active participation of the cities of the peninsula; 3) it establishes that twenty senators (vigintiviri) of consular rank share the military command of the Italian cities: Tullius Menophilus and Rutilius Pudens Crispinus are placed in charge of the defense of Aquileia. Maximinus then set out for Italy but his army, which also included contingents of Germans, became entangled in the siege of Aquileia and, having lost all hope of conquering the city, killed its emperor.
Gordian III (238-244)
239-241: Taking advantage of Maximinus’ expedition to Italy, the Goths carry out raids on the city of Pontus but are stopped by the governor of Moesia, Tullius Menophilus.
243: Victorious campaign of Gordian III against the Persians, who had occupied Mesopotamia and part of Syria.
244: Gordian III is lynched by his soldiers on the Euphrates. The praetorian prefect Philip is acclaimed emperor by the army.
Philip “the Arab” (244-249)
244: Philip buys peace with the Persians with 500 thousand gold coins.
244: The Alamanni devastate Alsace.
245-247: Philip fights in Dacia against the Goths, the Hasding Vandals and the Bastarnae.
248: In Rome, the first millennium of the city is celebrated.
248: The Goths and Vandals plunder Moesia and Thrace.
249: The governor of Pannonia Decius, victorious over the Goths on the Danube, is acclaimed emperor by his soldiers.
Decius (249-251)
249: Decius enters Italy and, near Verona, defeats Philip who dies in battle.
250: While the plague spreads throughout the Empire and the Goths penetrate the Balkan peninsula and occupy Philippopolis, Decius demands that all citizens certify that they have paid homage to the gods of Rome and to the emperor: this leads to the first persecution against Christians.
251: Decius is defeated and killed by the Goths in the battle of Abritto. The remnants of the army acclaim the governor of Moesia Trebonianus Gallus as emperor.
Trebonianus Gallus (251-253)
251: Trebonianus buys peace with the Goths, to whom he also grants an annual subsidy.
252: The persecution against Christians resumes.
253: The governor of Moesia, Aemilianus, having defeated the Goths of Crimea and the Burgundians on the Danube, is acclaimed emperor by the army.
Emilian (253)
253: Aemilianus descends into Italy and defeats Trebonianus Gallus at Terni. In Raetia, Senator Valerianus is acclaimed emperor, and in turn crosses the Alps. When Valerianus arrives, Aemilianus is killed at Spoleto by his own soldiers.
Valerian (253-260) Emperor of the East
Gallienus (253-268), son of Valerian, emperor of the West
254-259: Gallienus remains on the Rhine front. The Goths devastate the regions of Asia Minor, reaching as far as Trapezus.
257: Valerian decrees the persecution of Christians (ban on religious gatherings, confiscations, deportation and capital punishment of Christians who held important positions). Bands of Franks enter Gaul and through the Iberian peninsula arrive in Mauretania.
260: Valerian is defeated and captured at Edessa by the Persian king, Shapur I.
260: Galerius revokes the persecution against Christians.
260-274: The Gallic provinces secede from the Empire.
262-270: The eastern provinces come under the control of the Arab king of the city of Palmyra, Odenathus. Upon his death (266) his wife Zenobia assumes control of the kingdom.
267: Incursions by land and sea of the Heruli and Goths into the Aegean. The usurper Aureolus, defeated by Gallienus on the Adda, shuts himself up in Milan.
268: Gothic invasion of Asia Minor and the Balkans. Gallienus is killed in a palace conspiracy in which his right-hand man Claudius took part.
Claudius “the Gothic” (268-270)
268: Claudius, acclaimed emperor, forces the surrender and eliminates the usurper Aureolus.
269: Claudius inflicts a severe defeat on the Goths at Naissus. The Alamanni penetrate into Raetia.
270: Claudius dies of plague in Sirmium. Quintillus, his brother, who was in Aquileia defending Italy, is proclaimed emperor with the approval of the Senate. However, the armies acclaim Aurelian as emperor.
Aurelian (270-275)
270: Aurelian defeats the Vandals who had plundered Pannonia.
270-271: The emperor defeats several times between Fano and Pavia the Juthungi, the Alamanni and the Marcomanni who, having invaded Rhaetia and penetrated into Italy, had defeated him near Piacenza.
271: Construction of the Aurelian Walls begins in Rome.
272: Aurelian defeats Zenobia, the queen of Palmyra, and reconquers the eastern provinces.
273: After repelling an Alamanni incursion, Aurelian ends the Imperium Galliarum and reconquers the Gallic provinces.
274: A monetary reform is implemented that provides for the issuance of a new currency. The temple of the Sun, the inspiring and protective god of the Augustus, is built in Rome. Dacia is evacuated and the border of the Empire is brought back to the Danube.
275: Aurelian falls victim to a conspiracy at Perinthus while planning an expedition against the Persians. The army entrusts the Senate with the choice of the new emperor.
Tacitus (275-276)
276: The emperor defeats the bands of Goths, Alans and Scythians who had invaded Asia Minor and Thrace. He is killed by his own soldiers on the return journey to Italy.
Probus (276-282)
277-278: Probus defeats the Alamanni and Franks in Gaul and strengthens the defenses of the Rhine.
279: He faces and defeats the Vandals and Burgundians in Raetia on the river Lech. In Pannonia, Moesia and Thrace there are raids by the Sarmatians.
280: Probus defeats the Isauria bandits.
282: The praetorian prefect Carus, engaged in Raetia and Noricum, is proclaimed emperor by the army: Probus is killed by his soldiers in Sirmium.
Dear (282-283)
282: Caro repels a Quadi invasion on the Danube.
283: The emperor occupies Mesopotamia, defeats the Persians and captures their capital Ctesiphon. He is killed on the Tigris. His sons Numerian and Carinus assume the title of Augustus.
Numerian (283-284) Emperor of the East
Carinus (283-285) Emperor of the West
284: Upon returning from the war with the Persians, Numerian is killed by the prefect of the praetorium Arrius Aper, who is in turn eliminated by Diocletian, the commander of the imperial guards. Diocletian, acclaimed emperor, is defeated in Moesia, near Viminacium by Carinus, who is however killed by his own soldiers.
Diocletian (284-305) Emperor of the East
Maximian (286-310) Emperor of the West
284: The Saxons devastate the coasts of Gaul and Brittany. Revolt of the Bagaudae peasants.
286: Diocletian appoints the general Maximianus Caesar himself. Maximianus, after the revolt of the Bagaudae of Armorica has been crushed, is recognized as Augustus.
286: In Britain, Admiral Carausius, having defeated the Frankish and Saxon pirates, proclaims himself emperor
287: Diocletian and Maximian assume the titles of Jovius and Herculeus respectively.
288-292: Military operations on the Rhine and Danube against the Alamanni and Sarmatians.
293: Diocletian fights the Iazyges in Pannonia. With the establishment of the Tetrarchy, Galerius is named Caesar of Diocletian and Constantius Chlorus is named Caesar of Maximian.
294: Galerius, having established his base at Sirmium, fights on the Danube against the Goths.
296: Constantius Chlorus defeats Allectus, who had replaced Carausius, and reconquers Britain.
296-298: Maximian successfully fights in Africa against the Moorish tribes. Maximian stays for some time in Aquileia.
297: Introduction of the Diocletian tax reform.
297-298: Galerius defeats the Persians, annexes the satrapies beyond the Tigris to the Empire and extends the Roman protectorate over Armenia and Iberia.
298: On the Rhine border, Constantius Chlorus wins some victories over the Alamanni: the prisoners are used as manpower in the most depopulated areas of the Empire.
301: Price Edict.
302-304: Persecution of Christians.
305: Abdication of Diocletian and Maximian, who are succeeded as Augusti by Galerius and Constantius Chlorus. Maximinus Daia and Severus are chosen as Caesars respectively by Galerius and Constantius Chlorus.
Failure of the tetrarchic system
306: Upon the death of Constantius Chlorus at York, the armies of Britain acclaim his son Constantine as emperor.
312: Constantine enters Italy and, after defeating Maxentius’ armies several times in the Po Valley, wins a decisive victory over his adversary at the Milvian Bridge (Saxa Rubra).
Constantine I “the Great” (311-337), Emperor of the West
Licinius (308-324) Emperor of the East
313: Constantine and Licinius jointly proclaim in Milan the equality of rights for all religions. Licinius, having defeated Maximinus Daia at Adrianople, acquires control of the entire East.
314: After the defeat of Aurelius Valerius Valens, “dux” of Licinius, at Cabalae in Slavonia, the diocese of Illyricum passes to Constantine.
322: A Sarmatian incursion into Pannonia is repelled.
323: The defeat of the Goths by Constantine in a territory under Licinius sparks war between the two emperors.
323-324: Licinius, defeated at Adrianople and Scutari, surrenders. He will be executed the following year.
325: Arianism is condemned at the Council of Nicaea.
328: Constantine defeats the Alamanni on the Rhine.
330: The new capital of the Empire, Constantinople, is inaugurated.
332: At the request of the Sarmatians of Banat, Constantine wages war on the Goths, defeats them and concludes a foedus with them by virtue of which the Goths, in exchange for supplies of food and money, must guarantee the defense of the Danube and the sending of auxiliary contingents.
334: The Sarmatians are driven out of the Banat.
337: Upon the death of Constantine, the Empire is divided between his sons
Constantine II (337-340) Emperor of the West
Constantius II (337-361) Emperor of the East
Constans (337-350) emperor in Illyricum
337: In the administrative division of the Empire into prefectures, the “praefectura praetorio Illyrici, Italiae et Africae” is established.
340: Constans comes into conflict with Constantine who marches against him but is defeated and killed at Aquileia.
342: Constans reorganizes Hadrian’s Wall in Britain and fights the Franks and Alamanni on the Rhine.
343: In the East, Constantius II occupies Adiabene.
345: The Western Emperor Constans celebrates Easter in Aquileia together with Athanasius of Alexandria and Paul of Constantinople, bishops exiled from the Eastern Empire, where Arianism was dominant. Constans threatens his brother, the Eastern Emperor Constantius, with civil war if the two bishops are not readmitted to the pars Orientis.
348: Persian victory in the Battle of Singara.
350: Constans is forced to commit suicide by a military revolt in Gaul. Constantius II marches westward and at Sardica and Naissus obtains the deposition of the two usurpers Magnentius and Vetranio, who had proclaimed themselves emperors in the West after the death of Constans.
351: Decentius, brother of Magnentius, at the head of an army also formed by Frankish and Saxon mercenaries, moves war against Constantius: he awaits his attack south of the Kamniski Alps, annihilates the vanguard of his adversary at Atrans, but is defeated near Mursa (Osijek), in the bloodiest battle of the 4th century (54,000 fallen).
353: In his defense of Arianism, Constantius II uses as advisors the Pannonian bishops Valens of Mursa and Ursacius of Singidunum, the only ones in the Western Empire to be Arians.
355: Constantius II and his cousin Julian, whom he named Caesar, fight against the Franks, the Alamanni and the Saxons.
356-361: Julian repels the Germans and pacifies Gaul
359: To face the attack of the Persians in Mesopotamia, Constantius II demands that Julian send his best troops. Julian’s soldiers refuse to leave Gaul.
Julian “the Apostate” (360-363)
360: Julian is acclaimed emperor by the armies of Gaul and pushes back to the Rhine a horde of Alamanni instigated against him by Constantius II.
361: Julian marches against Constantius II and conquers Italy and Illyricum without a fight. A military contingent that, coming from Sirmium, was going to Gaul, passing through Aquileia, a city loyal to Constantius II, takes the side of the latter and Julian’s troops then proceed to the siege of the city. After conquering Aquileia, Julian’s army then advances to Naissus: the death of Constantius II avoids a clash between the two armies.
362: Julian enters Antioch, the capital of Constantius II. The burning of the temple of Apollo at Daphne, near Antioch, triggers the emperor’s retaliation against the Christians
363: The emperor leaves Antioch for an expedition against the Persians. Having crossed the Euphrates, Julian’s armies occupy Seleucia and Ctesiphon. During a Persian attack, the emperor is mortally wounded.
Jovian (363-364)
363: Jovian, acclaimed emperor by the army, hastens to conclude peace with the Persians to whom he cedes the satrapies conquered by Galerius (298)
364: Upon the death of Jovian, a compromise between the armies leads to the designation of the Christian Valentinian, who, hailed as emperor, joins his brother Valens on the throne.
Valentinian I (364-375) Emperor of the West
Valens (364-378) Emperor of the East
364: The Alamanni cross the Rhine and plunder Gaul. Visigoth raids in Thrace.
364: The religious situation in the Empire under Valentinian I and Valens: the West is Athanasian (except in the episcopal sees of Milan and in Illyricum); the East is Arian. In the West Valentinian I provides for the repression of Arianism, thus favoring the nomination of Ambrose as bishop of Milan and the dismissal of the Arian bishops in the diocese of Pannonia.
367: Valens crosses the Danube and plunders barbarian territory. Valentinian appoints his son GRATIAN as Augustus.
368: After the sack of Mainz by the Alamanni, the Roman army penetrates into Germanic territory. Roman control is re-established in Britain.
369: The limes between the North Sea and Raetia is fortified. Valens’ army penetrates deep into Gothic territory.
372-373: Revolt of the Mauro prince Firmus.
374: Devastations of the Quadi and Marcomanni in Pannonia
375: Under pressure from the Huns, many thousands of Visigoths are allowed to settle in the Empire. Many Ostrogoths also cross the border but without authorization. Upon the death of Valentinian I, Illyricum again forms a prefecture distinct from Italy.
Valens (364-378)
Gratian (367-383)
Valentinian II (375-392)
375: Valentinian II, son of Valentinian I, is proclaimed Augustus.
376-377: The Goths who had invaded Thrace are driven back.
378: The Goths and Huns spread across the Balkans. Valens is defeated and killed by the Goths at Adrianople. Gratian, having repelled an attack by the Alamanni, crosses the Rhine and enters their territory.
379: Gratian appoints Theodosius as Augustus and entrusts him with the Illyrian dioceses, Macedonia and Dacia.
Gratian (367-383)
Valentinian II (375-392)
Theodosius “the Great” (379-395)
380: Religious edict: the Catholic religion is the only state religion. The Visigoths devastate Macedonia and the Ostrogoths Pannonia. Gratian installs the Vandals and the Goths settle in Pannonia as federates.
381: Emperor Gratian convenes a council of 33 bishops in Aquileia which sanctions the dismissal of the last Arian bishops of eastern Illyricum.
382: Foedus with the Goths admitted by Theodosius to the Balkans.
383: Theodosius, emperor of the East, enters Northern Italy and takes control of the peninsula from Magnus Maximus, Gratian’s usurper.
388: Theodosius defeats the troops of Magnus Maximus at Siscia and Poetovio; then, having crossed the Alps by forced marches, he arrives at Aquileia where Maximus is massacred by his soldiers.
393: Theodosius marches against the usurper Flavius Eugenius, who awaits him in the Julian Alps where he had erected statues of Jupiter (Iuppiter). Theodosius’ army, having escaped an ambush thanks to the desertion of an enemy division, defeats Eugenius’ army on the Frigidus, according to tradition, with the help of God who causes violent gusts of bora to blow against Eugenius.
395: Death of Theodosius.
Honorius (395-423) Emperor of the West
Arcadius (395-408) Emperor of the East
395: Upon the death of Theodosius, the Marcomanni devastate Pannonia and Dalmatia up to the Adriatic. Alaric, king of the Goths, already an ally of Theodosius in the battle of the Frigidus, devastates Thrace and encamps at the gates of Constantinople. The “magister utriusque militiae” of the eleven-year-old Honorius, Stilicho, who effectively exercised power in the West, pushes back the Marcomanni and marches against Alaric but is stopped by Arcadius.
396: Honorius renounces the two Illyrian dioceses of Dacia and Macedonia. Stilicho, who intervened against Alaric in a territory under the jurisdiction of Arcadius, is proclaimed “public enemy” at the instigation of Eutropius, Arcadius’ eminence grise, and replaced by Alaric as “magister militum” for Illyricum.
397: Eutropius plots to have Africa pass under the control of Arcadius but Stilicho manages to re-establish Honorius’ supremacy over that diocese.
398: Eutropius victories over the Huns.
399: The Goths settled in Phrygia rebel and defeat the army of the Eastern Empire. Eutropius is dismissed. The Goth Gainas is appointed “magister utriusque militiae” by Arcadius.
