The theory of development is one of the major theories which is also known as the ideology of developmentalism . As the name implies, this theory pivots on the aspects of development, more specifically economic development or economic growth. The core idea of development theory is the assumption that economic growth is the driving force for the creation of social welfare and political progress .
Social welfare is achieved under the auspices of the capitalist system. Meanwhile, political progress is achieved by implementing a democratic system. Development through capitalism will bring society from traditional, backward and tribal to a modern, advanced and progressive society. If society undergoes a transformation into a modern society, the political aspect will move towards democracy. These two concepts: capitalism and democracy are the main axis of development theory . Sosiologis.com will briefly review the background, intellectual actors and criticism of development theory in this post.
Development theory background
The philosophical foundation of development theory lies in the idea of progress. The concept of progress has been around since ancient Greek philosophers talked about politics and society. JB Bury (1920) and Robert Nisbet (1980) traced the idea of progress from the ancient Greek era to the present day.
The question posed is, if development means progress, how is progress measured? What form of society does development theory address? Although society is constantly changing and dynamic, the changes that occur do not always lead to progress.
Bury argues that a society that leaves a barbaric situation is on the way to progress. The word ‘barbaric’ here is very problematic because Bury actually sees ancient society in its present context . Nisbet argues that the idea of progress is a linear process from primitive conditions to newer stages. This process continues linearly into the future.
Development of development theory
Although its philosophical foundations have been around for a long time, development as a concept in political theory did not appear until the 1950s. Initially, the development concept was applied to formal state-level institutions. Its application through a legal process is supported by the constitution and law. The goal is to create a stable country with a clear constitutional support for economic growth.
Countries in Western Europe, the United States and the Soviet Union were the first countries that prioritized political stability so that the development process could take place. In practice, the political systems developed by these countries after the second world war were not uniform. This diversity was greeted by the emergence of several comparative studies on development theory. But generally these studies are carried out in relatively more economically established countries.
In its development, development theory has become an instrument of the first developed countries to establish political and economic cooperation with developing countries. The countries that were first developed were generally colonial countries during the world war. The development paradigm introduced by developed countries is expected to be able to lift the economic conditions of developing countries . In the end, developing countries follow in the footsteps of developed countries which are capitalist and democratic.
Another hope from developed countries is that developing countries can become an alliance in the context of post-war international relations. This goal has certainly attracted debate, especially from a critical viewpoint which considers that economic assistance for developing countries will create dependency . So that the development theory applied is actually only a cover for the new forms of colonialism and imperialism.
Several intellectual actors are behind development theory
W. Rostow
One of the key figures in development theory is Rostow. He has held important positions in a number of top universities and the United States government. Rostow designed the American international aid agency that is now known as USAID (US Agency for International Development). Its influence in academics is still felt today.
In his book “The Stages of Economic Growth” (1960), Rostow explained the country’s development from traditional to modern through five stages.
The five stages of development according to WW Rostow:
»The first stage , a country where the conditions of the people are still traditional. The main characteristics of traditional societies are a subsistence economy, strong family ties and developing technology that has not yet touched machines.
»The second stage , a country whose people are ready to take off. The main characteristics of a society that is ready to take off are the development of the agricultural system and the use of machine technology for work. At this stage the banking and investment systems emerge. Traditional values still exist but there are indications of changes in modern values.
»The third stage , a country whose people’s condition takes off. The main characteristic of this stage, traditional elements are drowned out by modernization. Urbanization occurred in big cities, agriculture experienced commercialization, and industrialization was growing rapidly. The economic growth graph has also increased from year to year.
»The fourth stage , a country whose condition of society is moving towards maturity. The main characteristics of a society towards adulthood include generally consistent economic growth despite fluctuations. Economic growth has entered the international market, as indicated by the value of investments that are able to compete globally. Technology applications are increasing and continuing to progress as new technologies are discovered. Maturity is indicated when economic production is not limited to industrial products as it is at the take-off stage.
»The fifth stage , a country whose condition of society is heading towards a consumption society (the age of high mass consumption). The main characteristic of this society lies in the transition from the production of goods to the production of services. People have fulfilled their basic needs and spent their consumption for social security and welfare. The composition of employment is dominated by urban workers, the service sector is a highly skilled sector, and the income per capita of each person is above average. Rostow argued that the United States was the first country in the world to reach this stage. Rowtow’s theory of development is considered applicable in developing countries.
Seymour Martin Lipset
In his book “Political Man: The Social Bases of Politics” (1960), Lipset argues that several social and organizational factors are needed to achieve a democratic state. Some of these factors include: industrialization, urbanization, higher education, and high wealth rates. To reach the maturity stage of democracy, Lipset added economic growth and legitimacy as two main factors. Again, we see economic growth as a prerequisite for achieving social and political development .
The Lipset describes in more detail how economic development can change social structures . In developing countries, the social structure looks like a pyramid where a few elites control the majority of the poor. Lipset argues that economic growth will raise some of the majority of the lower class to the middle and reduce the number of a handful of elites to the middle, so that the shape of the pyramid will change like a diamon, with the middle class being the majority.
A country where the majority of the population is the middle class, is unlikely to become radical and revolutionary. It is also unlikely that society will side with communism. In short, economic development will reduce the potential for social conflict and facilitate the transition to a democratic political system .
Criticism of development theory
The assumptions echoed by developmentists have received a lot of criticism from several intellectuals, one of whom is Howard J. Wiarda, through his book “Introduction to Comparative Politics: Concepts and Processes” (1993). Wiarda elaborated 12 reasons why development theory has no potential to be applied universally.
√ First , many development theory literatures are written by Western intellectuals who have little or no experience of living in developing non-Western countries. This fact influences that development schemes prepared with Western references are not necessarily able to describe society in non-Western countries.
√ Second , the Vietnam War , which was considered a ‘trial’ of Rostow’s theory in developing countries, failed. The application of capitalism and democracy in Vietnam was not achieved, in fact more American soldiers died. The failure of the Vietnam war became a symbol of the failure of expectations of development theory to be applied in developing countries.
√ Third , the prediction that economic growth, social mobilization and democracy will result in a stable and prosperous community life. Samuel P. Huntington in “Political Order in Changing Societies” (1968) argued otherwise. Economic growth and social mobilization will produce instability, not social stability.
√ Fourth , related to Huntington’s opinion, the theory of development assumes that economic growth will gradually eliminate traditional values along with a shift in interest towards modern values. However, in developing countries, the traditional aspect does not disappear, in fact in some cases it strengthens into institutions, such as caste. Traditional values are always able to withstand the pressures of change.
√ Fifth , the philosophical foundation of development theory is based on the experiences of Western countries. Policies that have been derived into development schemes follow the pattern of Western countries, making it difficult to fully implement them.
√ Sixth , development theory considers the conditions of underdeveloped countries in the 1950s and 1960s to be similar to conditions in developed countries in the 1700s and 1800s. This assumption ignores the very rapid technological changes of the 20th century. The countries of the world are becoming more integrated so that their development schemes should adjust accordingly.
√ Seventh , the stages of development proposed by Rostow cannot be used in developing countries. Slow development as experienced by developed countries in the last century is no longer relevant to be applied to developing countries in the present century. Today people want economic, social and political success more rapidly along with the rapid development of technology.
√ Eighth , the proponents of development theory argue, the money that is injected into development in the third world will drive the economy, then create social and political changes. These kinds of expectations are unrealistic and fraudulent. In some cases, financial injections lead to conflict and violence resulting from social and political changes.
√ Ninth , the developmentalism methodology contains problems. For example, a functional structural variable in a development scheme that is considered applicable in different countries with different cultures is an arbitrary assumption.
√ Tenth , development theory is considered not to involve various perspectives in it. Prioritizing economic growth automatically rejects other views that do not prioritize economic growth for development.
√ Eleventh , assistance from the United States through USAID to developing countries destroys the traditional structures that have historically been the foundations of the state. Developmentalist policies are seen as creating more harm to developing countries than progress.
√ Finally , some critics have even argued that development theory is nonsense. The theory of development is the United States’ strategy to maintain its super power position in international politics. With an injection of funds, the United States dominates and controls the development of third world countries. This last criticism is explained in detail in the dependency theory pioneered by Latin American intellectuals.
