Athletics

Athletics. Also known as the “king of sports”, it is the oldest of all sports. It began to be developed in an organized way in the Greek Olympic Games , from 776 BC. In the beginning, the main activity of the Olympic meetings was the Pentathlon , which included discus and javelin throws , cross-country races , long jump and wrestling .

Currently it has the following modalities divided into: flat speed races, middle distance, long distance and marathon; obstacle course races; relay races; race walking, and cross country; discus, javelin, hammer and shot put throws; high jump, long jump, triple jump and pole vault; and combined decathlon and heptathlon events . Every year a series of events are held both indoors and outdoors, governed by the International Amateur Athletics Federation ( IAAF ).

History

The history of athletics may be as old as that of mankind. Since primitive times, every human being has shown a natural tendency to test physical resources, and in order to survive, it was necessary to run after prey and then hunt it down by throwing a tool.

Traces of athletic activities can be found in Egyptian bas-reliefs dating back to 3500 BC , but the first documented evidence of athletic competitions in antiquity is found in Greece and Ireland , making athletics the oldest organised form of sport.

In classical Greek literature there are descriptions of races held in Hellas at least a thousand years before the beginning of the Christian era , associated with religious festivals; although some authors date the origin of the Olympic Games , which received that name because they were held in the city of Olympia , northwest of the Peloponnese , in the year 1222 BC and others in 884 BC , the first olympionikós whose name we know is Coroebus , winner of the speed race (stadion) in the year 776 BC. Coroebus was a son of the earth, since he came from nearby Elis, the city that promoted the celebration. At first the stadion test was the only one on the program.

Later others were added, such as the diaulos (two stadia), the dolicho (ranging in length from seven to twenty-four stadia), and the pentathlon (which included the stadion race, long jump, discus, javelin and wrestling). The winners received great honours, and some of their exploits were recounted by famous writers and philosophers. Indeed, most of the names of ancient Olympic champions are known from lists compiled by celebrities such as Hippias, Aristotle and Scissions Africanus.

Despite speculation by various authors, it is perfectly understandable that there is no reliable information on the markings made in antiquity. Other important events in Ancient Greece were the Pythian Games , the Nemean Games and the Isthmian Games .

The Pythian Games were held at Delphi and had a resonance almost comparable to the Olympic Games. At them, too, great honours were awarded to the winners. Over time, the prizes became so great that the recipients inevitably became professionals. Athletes occasionally resorted to mysterious concoctions to improve their performance. For the same purpose, some removed their spleen, as ancient medicine did not appreciate the true value of this organ.

The prizes received by the winners were of considerable value in relation to the economic level of the time and the incentives were so great that the risk of inducing corruption reached an extreme point. Given these circumstances, it is not unreasonable to assume that the end of the games, decreed by the Roman Emperor Theodosius in 393, came about as a result of several factors and not as a mere consequence of religious and political rivalries. For eight centuries there were no organised athletics competitions.

As for the Celts , they founded the Lugnas Games, later called the Tailteann Games (held in Tailti, County Meta, today Teltown, northwest of Dublin) and which originated as local festivals. According to the Old Book of Leinster, written around 1150 BC , the games were first held in 829 BC. The programme of athletic events included high jump, pole vault, stone throwing and javelin throwing. These games were held annually, in the month of August. Over time they lost importance and continuity but, in one form or another, they survived until the 14th century .

News of the Tailteann Games also reaches us through the old Irish sagas, in which history and legend seemed to be closely intertwined, which can also be said to a certain extent of the accounts of the ancient Greek games. In the transition from Antiquity to the Middle Ages, new cultural and religious currents developed which contributed to the diminishing importance of athletic exercises. In the European continent, sport survived thanks to knightly or military tournaments, and athletic sports with characteristics not far removed from those that dominate today began to develop in the British Isles. In the 12th century, the city of London could boast several athletic fields where people of different classes tested their physical prowess in running, jumping and throwing events. In Scotland, these athletic exercises played an important role in popular festivals, which to a certain extent have lasted until 2010 , especially the weightlifting events.

Around the middle of the 19th century , athletics competitions were re-established. The events became the favourite sport of the English and in 1834 a group of English athletes agreed on the minimum requirements for competing in certain events. Also in the 19th century, the first university athletics meetings were held between the universities of Oxford and Cambridge in 1864 , the first national meeting in London in 1866 and the first amateur meeting held in the United States on an indoor track.

Athletics became popular in Europe and America until the modern Olympic Games were held in Athens in 1896 , a restored modification of the ancient games held by the Greeks at Olympia .

During the 20th century and into the 21st century , the games have been held in several countries at four-year intervals, except in times of war.

In 1913, the International Amateur Athletics Federation ( IAAF ) was founded , with headquarters in London . It is the governing body for international athletics competitions, responsible for establishing the rules and recognizing records obtained by athletes.

Athletics events

Racing

Speed

Ana Fidelia Quiros (born 1963)

Speed ​​is a complex ability that can be achieved over different distances. When an athlete wants to improve his speed, he must take into account the different characteristics and complexities that structure the route of a stretch. For this reason, it is necessary to train reaction, acceleration, maximum speed and endurance.

• 100 meters

The 100-meter race is one of the most attractive events in athletics. In it, athletes try to cover 100 meters in the shortest time possible.

This race, unlike the other speed races (200 and 400), is held on a single straight, specifically the one where the finish line is located.

Each athlete (8 maximum) stands in a lane and remains in it throughout the race without being able to leave it.

• 200 meters

In this speed test, the athlete runs half of the track. The athlete must run a curve and then a straight line that will take him to the finish line. As the race starts on a curve, the athletes are not positioned at the same height, since if this were not the case, those running on the outer lanes would cover a greater distance than those on the inner lanes.

• 400 meters

This is the longest distance speed test. From this point on, middle-distance tests (800 metres, 1500 metres…) or long-distance tests (from 3000 metres onwards) are considered.

The athlete, as in the 200 metres, starts on a curve. In this case, the starting curve is the opposite to that of the 200 metres. Specifically, the athlete starts from the curve closest to the finish line in order to complete a full lap of the athletics track. As the start is made on a curve, the corresponding distance compensation between lanes will be made.

Fences

Dayron Robles

In this event, the runner encounters a certain number of hurdles that he must cross. There are various distances in this event: 110, 200 and 400. The hurdle is made of wood or metal and is composed of two bases and two uprights that support a rectangular frame reinforced by one or more crossbars; the uprights must be loose at the end of each base. The maximum width of each hurdle is 1.20 metres.

• 110 meters hurdles

There are 10 hurdles in the 110m race, each 1.06 metres high. The distance from the starting line to the first hurdle is 13.72 metres, the remaining hurdles are spaced 9.14 metres apart and the distance from the last hurdle to the finish line is 14.02 metres.

• 200 meters hurdles

There are 10 hurdles of 0.762 metres each in the 200 metres. The distance from the start to the first hurdle is 18.92 metres, the other hurdles are spaced 18.29 metres apart and the distance from the last hurdle to the finish line is 17.10 metres.

• 400 meters hurdles

There are 10 hurdles of 0.914 metres each in the 400 metres. The distance between the starting line and the first hurdle is 45 metres, the other hurdles are spaced 35 metres apart, and the distance from the last hurdle to the finish line is 40 metres.

These races require very intense training, both to find the best style to overcome the hurdles and to study the regularity of the gait in order to tackle them in the most favourable conditions.

Middle distance

This term is applied to the classic 800 and 1,500 metre races, including the kilometre and the English mile (1,609 metres). Here, runners are not restricted to lanes. The start is made in a line. Tactical sense plays a role in the positioning of the group. Sprinters, who are faster towards the end of the race, are interested in ensuring a slow pace so that the race is really decided in the last 100 or 200 metres.

• 800 meters

Middle distance race in which two laps of the athletics track are run. The 800 metres must be run in lanes until the end of the first curve, using all the available lanes. The starts, therefore, will be staggered to compensate for the curve and so that everyone runs the same distance. At the end of the first curve, the athletes no longer have to run in lanes, and they usually position themselves in the innermost lanes of the track. After this distance, the starting blocks are no longer used.

A fairly simple standing start is used. There are only two starting calls: “On your marks” and “Shot”, thereby eliminating the call “ready”, which is typical of pure speed events. These particularities are applicable to 800 metres and longer distance races.

There can only be 8 participants per race, since this test is determined by the number of lanes on the track.

• 1500 meters

A highly valued middle distance race. The athletes wait for the start on a broken line. At the command “take your places” they advance to a solid line located about two metres away, which is actually the starting line.

This race, and all the longer distance races, are not run on lanes. The number of athletes competing in the event will be a maximum of twelve. The starting line is slightly curved to allow the outer lanes to approach the inner lane on equal terms with the rest of the athletes and the distance covered is the same.

Exceptionally, when more than twelve athletes are competing, the athletics track is divided into two parts. This creates two different race groups, which will eventually join together at a certain point in the race, and where the athletics track will no longer be divided (this applies to all events over 1000 metres that take place on the track).

Background

Long distance races include the classic 5,000 and 10,000 metre events, as well as hourly record attempts. There is exceptional physical and muscular quality, together with great energy.

• 5000 meters

Intermediate distance test that has similar characteristics to the 3000-meter test: The start is made standing, there are only two calls and it does not take place in lanes.

Once the first 200 meters have been completed (which coincides with the finish line), the athlete must complete 12 laps to complete the course.

• 10000 meters

A long distance race with similar characteristics to the 5000-metre race: the start is standing, there are only two calls to the race and it is not run in lanes. From the moment the athlete leaves the starting line, he or she must cross the finish line 25 times to finish the race.

When the number of athletes is high (more than 12 athletes), preliminary heats may be proposed (as in other races). However, in races longer than 1000 metres, two starting groups may be formed, which will end up merging later.

Marathon

The marathon, a race of about 42 kilometres, is a gruelling event that is run on the road but ends on the track. The marathon is a very attractive athletic discipline. This is confirmed by the fact that there are dozens of cities that organise this event every year, as well as the Olympic Games.

The name “Marathon” comes from the name of a Greek city, which is located about 50 kilometers northeast of Athens. According to historical information, a great battle between the Greek and Persian armies took place there. The latter were defeated and for this reason a Greek soldier named Pheidippides is said to have run from that place to Athens to announce the victory of the Greeks, and finally fell dead from having run such a long distance. It is undeniable that many historical events are tinged with legends, additions and the purpose of embellishing the events.

Herodotus refers to the Battle of Marathon, but incomprehensibly barely mentions the supposed race of Pheidippides. Only almost three centuries later is this supposed event referred to by Lucian and Plutarch, who contributed the knowledge that is currently known regarding the events related to the race of Pheidippides.

It is believed that at the end of the 19th century , the French historian Michel Bréal proposed the creation of a long-distance race named after the legendary battle: Marathon.

This race apparently appears for the first time at the Olympic Games in Athens, on April 10, 1896. Fourteen Greek athletes and four foreigners participated, among them Gyula Kellner and the Australian Edwin Flack (recent Olympic champion two days before the 1,500 meters). The distance covered was 40 kilometers. The race was won by a shepherd named Spiridon Louis with a time of 2 hours, 58 minutes and 50 seconds. Among the numerous prizes that Louis won some of them were: a barber who offered him a full barber service for the rest of his life, a horse and a cart to transport water to Athens, a small farm. He died at the age of 66 in 1940.

There is no world record in this race, but there is a best time, because the official bodies that govern athletic sports only recognise times set on regulated tracks, not on streets or roads. The marathon as a space for individual and social action shares the exercise of values ​​of a very diverse nature, since the dimensions of subjectivity and intersubjectivity of the participants are involved: competitors, judges, coaches, organisers and the general public. Running a marathon is not only a personal matter, but is also a joy, a myth and a history where the runner recognises himself as alone and at the same time identifies with other people.

Obstacles

It is a track race, where various obstacles are placed (hedges, slopes, river, wall, etc.). These obstacles must be overcome by the runners. The race is usually run over a distance of 3,000 metres.

March

The speed of sports walking is more than twice that of ordinary walking. To achieve a high speed of movement, it is not enough to master the technical peculiarities of sports walking. The intensity of work is greater than in ordinary walking, and therefore energy losses increase. As a result, sports walking classes have a significant effect on the athlete’s body, strengthen internal organs and systems, improve work capacity, positively influence the development of strength and, above all, endurance, and also educate volitional qualities.

Race walking competitions are held on stadium tracks (counter-clockwise) and on common paths, at distances from 3 to 50 kilometres.

In every competition, in every major championship, race walking has brought Spain a good number of medals. Since the 1978 European Championships in Prague, only at the World Championships in Tokyo and the Olympic Games in Seoul has there been no reward. The crowning moment came in Barcelona, ​​when Daniel Plaza won the first gold medal at the Games for Spanish athletics. The chances remain untouchable with Massana, Bragado and Fernández.

Relays

Races contested by teams of several runners who take turns passing a baton, a wooden or metal egg tube that must not exceed 30 centimetres and weigh no less than 50 grams.

• 4×100

One of the most exciting sprint events is the relay. They are often the highlight of major competitions such as the Olympic Games and are usually the last events to be held. Unlike many other athletic events, relays are team events in which four runners each run a part, called a leg or relay, of the total distance.

Each team member is chosen based on their characteristics. The fastest racer runs first, the strongest racers run second and last, and the best cornering racer runs third.

A tube called a “baton” is passed from the first runner to the second and so on. The relay baton is smooth and hollow, about 12 mm in diameter and 30 cm in length. It can be made of wood, metal or plastic and weighs only 50 g. They are usually brightly coloured to make them easier to see. The baton must be passed within a certain area of ​​20 metres, called the transfer or passing zone. If the pass does not take place within this certain area, the team will be disqualified.

The pre-zone is 10 metres long and allows the athlete who is going to receive the baton to accelerate to the transfer zone.

• 4×400 Relay

Except for the increased distance to be covered, the 4x400m relay is very similar to the 4x100m. Each runner runs a full lap of the track, at which point he or she hands over the baton to the next member of his or her team.

The basic difference with the 4x100m race is that there is no “Pre-zone”. The athlete who is going to receive the baton must accelerate in the same transfer zone.

The first athlete runs along his lane, handing over the baton to the second relay runner. The second relay runner will run along his lane until the end of the first curve, from which point he will be able to take a free lane (obviously he will go to lane 1 in order to cover a shorter distance). The third and fourth relay runners will normally be positioned in lane 1, although depending on the circumstances (possibility of obstructing opponents, joint arrival of different competitors, etc.) they may be positioned in any other lane.

It is recommended that in relays where no more than 4 teams compete, only the first turn of the first lap be run in individual lanes. In such a case, the compensation at the start will be similar to that for the 200 metres. The baton must be passed within a certain area of ​​20 m, called the transfer or passing zone. If the pass does not take place within this certain area, the team will be disqualified.

Jumps

• High jump

Alexis Copello

The athlete must cross a horizontal bar or rod resting on the supports of two vertical uprights, without pulling it over. This rod is triangular or circular in section. If it is triangular, each side of the triangle measures 30 millimetres, its length is 3.66 to 4 metres, and its maximum weight is 2 kilograms. The supports, located opposite each other, are two flat rectangular surfaces measuring 4 x 6 centimetres. The bar or rod is placed on them so that it can fall to one side or the other if the athlete touches it when jumping. Experience has shown that it is not advisable to cross the rod facing forward, because to raise the lowest point as much as possible, the bar must be crossed tangentially and as if lying on it. The athlete stands on his side and can push off on the foot that is closest to the mat and bar, or on the other.

• Long jump

The athlete tries to cover the maximum possible distance in one jump from the starting board, which is bordering the launching track. The athlete takes off on the track and tries to get onto the launching board with maximum speed. The athlete lands in the jumping pit, which is about 9 metres long and has a soft floor that is perfectly aligned with the launching track. The landing point, which is taken as the distance measurement, is the footprint closest to the launching board. The jumping technique is one of the simplest. The athlete’s natural qualities are more important than his jumping style. However, a step in the air allows you to gain a few centimetres.

• Pole vault

It is a high jump with momentum. The athlete carries a pole made of any material, long or thick. The athlete takes momentum and at the end of its path in front of the pole, he puts the pole in the push box. The speed gained allows the pole to straighten vertically, dragging the athlete, who grabs onto it, taking advantage of this to rise in suspension. A vigorous pull of the arms allows the feet to be raised above the head and to cross a height of more than 4 metres. Once over the pole, the athlete turns and with a very strong push on the pole rises even higher, at the same time pushing the pole towards the take-off runway, thus preventing the pole from falling.

• Triple jump

Competitors run along an acceleration track towards a take-off board, where they attempt to reach the greatest possible distance in three bursts. The jumping area is the same as for the long jump, but there is an additional take-off area between the take-off board (where the first jump takes place) and the sandbank.

During takeoff, the jumper pushes off and lands on the same foot (like a hop on one foot). He then performs the second jump, landing on the opposite foot. He then jumps with that foot into the sand.

Releases

• Shot put

This throw is made with a ball, which is an iron or copper sphere filled with copper, weighing at least 7.257 kilograms (4 kilograms for women’s throws). It is thrown in front of the shoulder with one hand and must not be brought back. The throw is made from within a circle 2.135 metres in diameter, which has a 10-centimetre-high and 1.22-metre-long stop at the front, which easily fits into the inner circle. When carrying out the tests, the athlete may rest his feet against this stop, but not on top.

• Discus throw

The disc is a lenticular metal or wooden plate, surrounded by a rounded metal ring on the outside. It has copper plates, inserted without forming protrusions, on both sides of the wooden body and exactly in the centre of the disc, to achieve the exact weight. The circular copper plate has a diameter of 0.05 to 0.057 metres.

The diameter of the discus is 0.219 metres. The thickness of the exact centre, following a line perpendicular to the diameter, must not be less than 0.044. The thickness of the edge, at a distance of 0.006, must not be less than 0.013 metres. The ring is round and constitutes a perfect circle, the weight of the discus must not be less than 2 kilograms for men and 1 kilogram for women. The discus must be thrown from within a circle with an internal diameter of 2.50 metres, made of a band of iron, steel or wood, painted white. The athlete takes advantage of the centrifugal force by pivoting several times on himself and releasing the discus at the right moment, giving it an optimal and regulatory direction. Before leaving the circle he must wait for the discus to touch the ground and exit through the back of the circle, marked with a lime line.

• Javelin Throw

The javelin is made of wood or light metal, with a pointed iron or steel tip. It is constructed in such a way that the distance between the tip and the centre of gravity is not more than 1.10 metres and not less than 90 centimetres. The javelin is provided with a handle towards the centre of gravity made of 0.16 metre wide cords with no protrusions or notches on the handle. The length must not be less than 2.60 metres, and the diameter must be between 25 and 35 millimetres. The weight is 800 grams for men and 600 for women.

The javelin is thrown from behind a marked line consisting of a wooden crossbar 7 centimetres wide and at least 3.66 metres long. The javelin must be held by the handle. No throw will be valid if the competitor passes the line or extension or if the tip of the javelin does not hit the ground before another part.

• Hammer throw

The hammer consists of a metal ball connected to the handle by a 1.22-metre-long steel cable. The weight shall not be less than 7.257 kilograms. The throw is made from a 2.135-metre circle partially surrounded by a wire cage for the protection of spectators. As in the discus throw, the athlete increases the power imparted to the object by rotating it several times.

Combined

Decathlon – Heptathlon

Combined events are the only athletics disciplines whose final result is not expressed in physical units, but in points. Partial results are scored according to the tables of the International Athletics Federation. The athlete who achieves the highest number of points at the end of all the events wins.

Combined events are quite diverse (pentathlon, heptathlon, etc.). The events often depend on whether they are held outdoors or indoors. For example, the men’s heptathlon and the women’s pentathlon are held indoors. We will only highlight the two current Olympic events here: the men’s decathlon and the women’s heptathlon.

Decathlon tests

First day

• 100 meters smooth
• Long jump
• Shot put
• High jump
• 400 meters

Second day

• 110 meters hurdles
• Disk
• Pole
• Javelin
• 1,500 meters.

Heptathlon events

First day

• 100 meters hurdles
• High jump
• Shot put
• 200 m.

Second day

• Long jump
• Javelin
• 800 m.

In throws and long jumps, there are only three attempts. The rate of raising the bar will be uniform: 3 cm for the high jump and 10 cm for the pole vault.

The time between jumps will be 1.5 minutes for the high jump and 2 minutes for the pole vault. Between two consecutive jumps, 3 minutes for the high jump and 4 minutes for the pole vault. There are no jumps or throws for the tie-breaking. In the stipulated events, a wind speed of more than 2 m/s but less than 4 m/s is accepted. Under these conditions, a record in combined events may be approved, but not a record achieved in an individual event.

Three timekeepers will take the time of each competitor, with only one type of timing being accepted. Disqualification at the start will occur for the third incorrect timekeeping. Between the end of the race and the beginning of the next, there will be, at the discretion of the referee, a minimum time of 30 minutes; and 10 hours, between the end of one day and the beginning of the next.

The order of participation may be drawn before the start of each race, with a minimum of three participants per race; this rule will not apply to the last race, in which participants will be grouped according to the score they have obtained, with those at the top of the classification running together.

To score in a combined event, it is essential to have at least attempted to start in one of the races or to have made some attempts in the competitions.

Important events

• Olympics
• Central American and Caribbean Games
• Pan American Games
• Diamond League
• World Athletics Championships
• Grand Prix
• Marabana , in Cuba
• Maracuba , in Cuba
• Terry Fox Race in Cuba

Moments in Athletics from 1837 to 1996

• 1837 – First interclass competitions at Eton College, England .
• 1838 – Athletic meeting in Hoboken, New Jersey , United States , the first in the world to be honored with full coverage in a newspaper.
• 1839 – First athletic meeting in Canada , held at the Caer Howell Grounds, near Toronto .
• 1849 – First athletic meeting at the Royal Military Academy, Sandhurst, England.
• 1860 – First championships at Oxford University .
• 1861 – First American indoor meeting, organized by the Young Men’s Gymnastic Club of Cincinnati, Ohio .
• 1863 – First British indoor meeting, held at Ashburnam , London .
• 1864 – First Oxford – Cambridge Athletics Meeting , held at Christ Church Ground, Oxford. Eight events on the programme. Considered by some to be the founding meeting of modern athletics.
• 1866 – First English national championships, organised by the Amateur Athletic Club at Beaufot House , London.
• 1868 – First indoor ice rink meeting in New York, organized by the New York AC in a building under construction, which would become a skating rink.
• 1876 ​​– First United States Championship, organized by the New Cork A.C.
• 1880 – Foundation of the Amateur Athletic Association (AAA), Oxford’s first national athletics body.
• 1883 – First athletic meeting in Japan , organized by Tokyo Imperial University.
• 1887 – Montague Sherman’s book Athletics and football is published in London. First edition of 250 copies, with several reprints in subsequent years. It is the first complete account of amateur athletics.
• 1888 – Founding of the Amateur Athletic Union (AAU) of the United States.
• 1895 – First women’s athletic meet at Vasar College, Poughkeepsie, New York.
• 1895 – First major international match, New Cork AC versus London AC at Manhattan Field, New York. World bests were equalled or surpassed in five events.
• 1896 – First modern Olympic Games held at the Panathenaic Stadium, Athens. The idea of ​​reviving the ancient Olympic Games was proposed on Friday 25 November 1892 by Baron Piere de Coubertin at the Sorbonne Amphitheatre, Paris . The International Olympic Committee was founded on 23 June 1894 in Paris, with Demetrius Vikelas as its first president. The games were to be held every four years.
• 1903 – First international cross-country championship (Cross of Nations) in Glasgow, with athletes from England, Scotland , Wales and Ireland ; the first non-British country to participate was France , in 1907 .
• 1912 – The International Amateur Athletic Federations (IAAF) is founded in Stockholm, the body that continues to govern world athletics. Sixteen countries were included in the initial list, with J. Sigfrid Edströn of Sweden as the first president. The official birth of the IAAF was ratified in Berlin a year later. Races were timed for the first time; this event would change the history of athletics.
• 1913 – First Far Eastern Games, in Manila. The series finally came to an end with the tenth edition (Manila, 1934).
• 1914 – Presentation of the first technical rules for international competition and the first list of world records, at the III IAAF Congress.
• 1917 – Foundation of the Fédération Sportive Féminine de France (FSFF), the first national body for women’s athletics.
• 1919 – First South American Championship in Montevideo.
• 1921 – The Fédération Sportive Féminine Internationale (FSFI) was founded in Paris. Six countries were included in the initial membership list, with Alice Millita as president. The following year, the FSFI organised the first Women’s World Games at the Stade Pershing, Paris. Women’s events first appeared on the Olympic programme in Amsterdam in 1928. The FSFI finally merged with the IAAF in 1936.
• 1922 – Publication in Geneva of the book International Athletic Annual by Swiss Maurice Loesch, a pioneer of international statistical publications. The work included an exhaustive summary of the world athletics events held in 1921, with records, championship results and annual world statistics. The series ended abruptly with the premature death of the author, shortly after the second edition (1923).
• 1923 – First International Student Games in Paris.
• 1924 – At the Paris Olympic Games, Finnish long-distance runner Paavo Nurmi won five Gold Medals, which, when added to those of Antwerp 1920 and Amsterdam 1928, brought his total to 9 Gold Medals. Due to the records he broke, he became a legend in athletics and was nicknamed “The Flying Finn”.
• 1926 – First Central American and Caribbean Games in Mexico .
• 1930 – First British Empire (later Commonwealth) Games in Hamilton, Canada.
• 1931 – First Balkan Games in Sofia. First international women’s cross-country race in Douai, France.
• 1934 – First European Championship in Turin, Italy .
• 1936 – Jesse Owens, in 1936, wins 4 Gold Medals at the Berlin Olympic Games (100 meters, 200 meters, long jump and 4 x 100 relay. Adolfo Hitler walks out of the medal ceremony in disgust. Nazi white supremacy was challenged.
• 1940 – First television broadcast of an athletics meet, the ICAAAA Indoor Championships, from Madison Square Garden in New York.
• 1946 – Lord Burghley, Marquess of Exeter, a former Olympic champion in the 400 metres hurdles, is elected president of the IAAF.
• 1948 – Publication of A Handbook on Olympic Games Track and Field Athletics by DH Potts and RL Quercetani in Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA. The book included the first all-time world ranking (one hundred places per event) complete, detailed and updated until the end of 1947 .
• 1948 – Czechoslovakian Emil Zatopek became the first athlete to break the 30-minute barrier in the 10,000 metres at the 1948 London Olympics, clocking a time of 29.59 minutes. He was nicknamed “The Human Locomotive” and in 1949 he set a new world record in the same discipline (29.21 minutes).
• 1950 – Foundation in Brussels of the Association of Track and Field Statisticians (ATFS). Eleven members on the initial list, with the Italian R.L. Quercetani as president and the Swiss Fulvio Regli as general secretary. The main aim of the new organisation was to propose the development and rationalisation of athletics statistics throughout the world. The ATFS International Athletics Annual, first published in 1951, has appeared regularly since then.
• 1951 – First Pan American Games in Buenos Aires. First Asian Games in New Delhi. First Mediterranean Games in Alexandria.
• 1960 – First Ibero-American Games in Santiago, Chile.
• 1961 – First IAAF team race walking competition held in Lugano, Switzerland (later renamed the Lugano Trophy).
• 1965 – First African Games in Brazzaville. First European Cup (final in Stuttgart).
• 1966 – First European Indoor Games, in Dortmund (from 1970 , European Indoor Championships).
• 1967 – First Europe-America meeting in Montreal. The series ended after the second edition (Stuttgart, 1969 ).
• 1973 – The IAAF takes over jurisdiction of the International Cross Country Championships (Cross of Nations), which are now the World Cross Country Championships. The International Track Association (ITA), a professional organisation founded in 1972 by the American Mike O’Hara, organises its first official meeting in Los Angeles. The ITA will go bankrupt in 1976.
• 1975 – The IAAF decrees the automatic suspension of athletes found to have used anabolic steroids.
• 1976 – Dutchman Adriaan Paulen , a former world-class 400m and 800m runner, is elected president of the IAAF.
• 1977 – First World Cup in Düsseldorf . The IAAF decrees that electrical timing (in hundredths of a second) is mandatory for the homologation of records at distances of less than 400 m inclusive.
• 1981 – Election of Italian Primo Nebiolo as president of the IAAF .
• 1983 – First World Championship in Helsinki .
• 1985 – First edition of the IAAF/Mobil Grand Prix , a series of major invitational meetings.
• 1986 – First Junior World Championship in Athens .
• 1987 – First World Indoor Championships in Indianapolis .
• 1988 – At the Seoul Olympics , Ben Johnson wins the 100 metres with a world record, and two days later is disqualified for having failed a doping test.
• 1996 – Carl Lewis wins his ninth gold medal. He wins the long jump for the fourth time at the Atlanta Olympics . “The Son of the Wind” is considered by many to be the greatest athlete in history.

Olympics

Summer Olympics

• 1896 First edition in Athens , Greece .
• 1900: Second edition in Paris , France .
• 1904: Third edition in St. Louis , United States.
• 1906: Intercalated Games in Athens, Greece.
• 1908: IV edition in London, United Kingdom .
• 1912: 5th edition in Stockholm, Sweden .
• 1916: VI edition in Berlin (Second German Empire). They were suspended due to the First World War .
• 1920: 7th edition in Antwerp , Belgium .
• 1924: VIII edition in Paris, France.
• 1928: IX edition in Amsterdam , Netherlands .
• 1932:10th edition in Los Angeles , United States .
• 1936: XI edition in Berlin, Third Reich .
• 1940: 12th edition in Helsinki , Finland . Suspended due to World War II .
• 1944: 13th edition in London, United Kingdom. Suspended due to World War II.
• 1948: 14th edition in London, United Kingdom.
• 1952: 15th edition in Helsinki, Finland.
• 1956: 16th edition in Melbourne , Australia.
• 1960: XVII edition in Rome , Italy.
• 1964: 18th edition in Tokyo , Japan .
• 1968: 19th edition in Mexico City , Mexico.
• 1972: 20th edition in Munich (West Germany).
• 1976: XXI edition in Montreal , Canada.
• 1980: XXII edition in Moscow , Soviet Union.
• 1984: XXIII edition in Los Angeles, United States.
• 1988: XXIV edition in Seoul , South Korea .
• 1992: XXV edition in Barcelona , ​​Spain .
• 1996: XXVI edition in Atlanta , United States.
• 2000 : XXVII edition in Sydney , Australia .
• 2004 : XXVIII edition in Athens (Greece).
• 2008 : XXIX edition in Beijing , China .
• 2012 : XXX edition in London, United Kingdom.

Winter Olympics

• 1924: First edition in Chamonix, France.
• 1928: 2nd edition in Sankt Moritz , Switzerland .
• 1932: Third edition in Lake Placid , United States.
• 1936: IV edition in Garmisch-Partenkirchen (III Reich).
• 1940: 5th edition in Garmisch-Partenkirchen (Third Reich). Suspended due to World War II.
• 1944: VI edition in Cortina d’Ampezzo , Italy. Suspended due to World War II.
• 1948: 5th edition in Sankt Moritz, Switzerland.
• 1952: VI edition in Oslo Norway .
• 1956: 7th edition in Cortina d’Ampezzo, Italy.
• 1960: VIII edition in Squaw Valley , United States.
• 1964: IX edition in Innsbruck , Austria .
• 1968: 10th edition in Grenoble, France.
• 1972: XI edition in Sapporo , Japan.
• 1976: 12th edition in Innsbruck (Austria).
• 1980: 13th edition in Lake Placid (United States).
• 1984: XIV edition in Sarajevo Yugoslavia .
• 1988: XV edition in Calgary , Canada.
• 1992: XVI edition in Albertville , France.
• 1994: 17th edition in Lillehammer , Norway.
• 1998: 18th edition in Nagano (Japan).
• 2002: 19th edition in Salt Lake City, United States.
• 2006: XX edition in Turin , Italy.
• 2010: XXI edition in Vancouver , Canada.
• 2014 : XXII edition in Sochi , Russia.

Rules

Athletics is a competitive sport (between individuals or teams) that covers a large number of events. The main disciplines of athletics can be classified into the following categories: running, walking, throwing and jumping.

Speed ​​races

The shortest races are those known as sprint races. Outdoor races run over 100, 200 and 400 metres. In this type of event, the athlete crouches at the starting line and, after the starting shot is fired by a starter, he or she runs onto the track and runs as fast as possible towards the finish line, with a quick start being essential.

Fences

Hurdling events are sprint races in which competitors must clear a series of ten wooden and metal (or plastic and metal) obstacles called hurdles. The Olympic hurdling events are the 110 m hurdles for men, the 100 m hurdles for women, and the 400 m hurdles for both men and women.

Middle distance races

Races covering between 800 and 3,000 m are known as middle-distance races. Olympic events are 800 m and 1,500 m. Middle-distance runners must regulate their speed carefully to avoid becoming exhausted.

Long distance races

Races with a distance of more than 3,000 metres are called long-distance events. Unlike these long-distance events, marathon races are usually run on paved surfaces on urban circuits.

Relay races

Relay races are events for teams of four members, in which one runner runs a given distance, then passes a rigid tube called a baton to the next runner, and so on until the distance of the race is completed. The baton must be passed within a given area of ​​18 m in length. Obstacle course. The obstacle course covers a distance of 3 kilometres, marked by hurdles, a river and other obstacles.

March

The main rule of race walking events is that the heel of the athlete’s front foot must remain in contact with the ground until the toe of the back foot leaves the ground. The rule is designed to prevent participants from running.

High jump

The objective of the high jump is to clear, without falling, a horizontal bar (bar) suspended between two vertical supports separated by about 4 metres. The participant is allowed three attempts to clear the same height.

Pole vault

In pole vaulting, an athlete attempts to clear a bar placed at a great height with the aid of a flexible pole, usually 4 to 5 m long and usually made of fibreglass since this material replaced bamboo and metal, which were used until the 1960s. Participants have three attempts for each height.

Long jump

In the long jump, an athlete runs along a track and jumps from a line marked with clay, trying to cover the maximum distance possible. A jump is measured in a straight line from the line to the nearest mark made by any part of the athlete’s body when it contacts the ground on which he lands. Athletes are classified according to their longest jumps.

Triple jump

The aim of the triple jump is to cover the maximum possible distance in a series of three interlocking jumps. The jumper runs down the track and jumps from a line, landing on one foot, pushes forward again and, landing on the opposite foot, gains the final push and lands, this time on both feet, on the ground, in a similar way to the long jump.

Shot put

The aim of the shot put is to propel a solid metal ball through the air as far as possible. The weight of the ball in the men’s category is 7.26 kg and in the women’s 4 kg. The throwing action is confined to a circle with a diameter of 2.1 m.

Discus throw

The discus is a metal-rimmed, metal-centered plate that is thrown from a circle with a diameter of 2.5 meters. The athlete holds the discus flat against the fingers and forearm on the throwing side, then spins around quickly and throws the discus into the air after performing an adequate arm extension.

Hammer throw

Hammer throwers compete by throwing a heavy ball attached to a wire with a handle at the end. The ball, wire and handle together weigh 7.26 kg and form a unit with a maximum length of 1.2 metres. The action takes place in a circle with a diameter of 2.1 m.

Javelin Throw

The javelin is an elongated spear with a metal tip, which has a minimum length of 260 cm for men and 220 cm for women, and a minimum weight of 800 g for men and 600 g for women. It has a handle, made of string, about 15 cm long, which is located approximately at the javelin’s centre of gravity.

Decathlon and heptathlon

The men’s decathlon consists of ten events held over two days. The events are held in the following order: 100m dash, long jump, shot put, high jump, 400m dash, 110m hurdles, discus throw, pole vault, javelin throw and 1500m dash. The women’s heptathlon events are also held over two days and are: 100m hurdles, shot put, high jump, long jump, 200m dash, 800m dash and javelin throw