Scientific knowledge is the body of knowledge verified, systematized, and acquired methodically and thoroughly through observation , experimentation, and the analysis of facts or phenomena. For example:Albert Einstein’s theory of relativity, the Pythagorean theorem, the water cycle.
The main objective of scientific knowledge is to explain and understand natural phenomena . To acquire this knowledge, it uses the scientific method , which encompasses procedures and rules that guarantee the fidelity, objectivity, and rigor of the reasoning and conclusions obtained. These conclusions must have universal validity, since they explain the laws that govern nature.
- See also: Science and technology
Characteristics of scientific knowledge
The knowledge obtained through scientific thinking has the following characteristics:
- Objective. Scientific findings do not have a subjective or personal value, but rather a general value independent of the researchers’ assessments and feelings.
- Rational. Science operates on the basis of reason and human intelligence, staying away from faith, superstition, and other forms of non-empirical knowledge.
- Explanatory. Science seeks to explain natural phenomena and facts through common, verifiable laws or principles.
- Universal. Scientific findings are valid everywhere in the world, regardless of cultural differences.
- Methodical. For its experiments, analyses, and observations, science uses rigorous and controlled mechanisms and procedures, framed within the scientific method.
- Grounded. The foundations of scientific knowledge are the evidence and data acquired through theoretical analysis and empirical verification. They are not the product of creativity or imagination alone.
- Provisional. Despite its rigor, what is established by science can change with the advent of new explanations, so one scientific knowledge can be refuted by another.
- Verifiable. What is established by science can and should be verified through experience, in order to verify that the described phenomenon is universal and objectively addressed.
- Communicable. Scientific knowledge is usually transmitted and disseminated both within the specialized community and among the general population.
Examples of scientific knowledge
The following are some examples of established and verified scientific knowledge:
- Newton’s laws of motion. These laws establish the three principles that explain the motion of bodies and underpin the principles of classical mechanics. They were formulated by Isaac Newton (1643–1727) in the 17th century.
- The periodic table of elements. Originally formulated by the Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev (1834–1907) and refined over the decades, the periodic table lists the chemical elements organized according to their unique atomic properties. Through this organization, common trends in matter can be elucidated. Thanks to the periodic table, the existence of rare elements was discovered.
- The Pythagorean theorem. It is one of the most famous works of thought of the Greek mathematician Pythagoras of Samos (570–c. 490 BC). This mathematical rule dictates that in every right triangle, the length of the hypotenuse is equal to the square root of the sum of the areas of the squares of the respective lengths of the legs.
- The hydrologic cycle. Also known as the “water cycle,” this theoretical model describes the process of water transformation and circulation on the planet. According to this theory, water changes its physical state ( solid, liquid, and gas ) due to environmental conditions of pressure and temperature .
- Thales’s theorem. It was formulated in ancient times by the Greek philosopher Thales of Miletus (c. 624–c. 546 BC). It is a mathematical principle that establishes that in two straight lines cut by two parallel lines, the resulting segments on one of the lines are always proportional to the corresponding segments on the other. Using this theorem , the length of a segment can be calculated if its corresponding segment on the other line and the ratio between them are known.
- The theory of plate tectonics. This scientific theory explains the formation and movement of the Earth’s tectonic plates, that is, continental drift. It also explains orogenesis, or mountain formation, and the production of earthquakes.
- Antibiotics. Bactericidal substances revolutionized medicine and extended life expectancy, allowing for the cure and prevention of life-threatening diseases. All antibiotics originate, directly or indirectly, from the discovery of penicillin in 1929 by British scientist Alexander Fleming (1881–1955).
- The discovery of black holes. These colossal astronomical objects were discovered theoretically. However, thanks to advances in physics and outer space observation techniques, their gravitational effects have subsequently been demonstrated on numerous occasions.
- The development of atomic energy. In the 20th century, applied physics demonstrated the possibility of splitting the nucleus of a uranium atom, thus giving rise to the so-called “nuclear fission.” Its applications in energy (nuclear power plants) and warfare (the atomic bomb) revolutionized history.
- The calculation of the Earth’s diameter and circumference. This logical and calculating operation was the work of the Greek mathematician and astronomer Eratosthenes of Cyrene (276–194 BC). He performed it by observing the inclination of the shadows of two obelisks in the cities of Syena and Alexandria. To do so, he developed and applied his own trigonometric method, with which he was able to calculate the dimensions of the planet with impressive accuracy.
- The theory of biological evolution. Beginning with the studies of British naturalist Charles Darwin (1809–1882) in the 19th century, generations of scientists have studied the origin of life based on the fossil record and direct observation of current species. The theory of biological evolution demonstrates that each species originates from a previous one and that adaptation to environmental conditions favors the emergence of new life forms.
- The heliocentric model of the solar system. Contradicting the accepted astronomical model of his time, the Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543) formulated the heliocentric theory, which demonstrates that the Earth revolves around the Sun and not the other way around, as was then thought. This theory, disseminated shortly before his death in 1543, laid the foundations for the so-called Scientific Revolution that brought about the modern world.
- The creation of vaccines. Vaccines represented a huge step forward in the fight against disease, increasing human life expectancy by several decades. This discovery took place in the late 18th century, when it was discovered that people in contact with cowpox became mildly ill and then became immune to the deadly human variant. To replicate this effect, the cattlepox virus was administered to the population and the epidemic was defeated. It also set a precedent for future generations of vaccines and medicines.
- Computing and the development of computer systems. The invention of the computer represented one of the pinnacles of contemporary engineering. It brought together different fields of scientific knowledge to create an entirely new field: computing or informatics, the fruits of which were key to the construction of today’s computer-based world.
- Electricity generation. One of the most revolutionary discoveries in history was electricity, as it not only allowed us to illuminate and heat different spaces, but also to power countless machines and devices that facilitate human existence. Although the discovery is attributed to the American Thomas Alva Edison (1847-1931), it is actually the product of a vast succession of research, experiments, and experiences dating back even to ancient times.
- The discovery of microwaves. The existence of electromagnetic waves (generally between 300 MHz and 300 GHz) was predicted in 1864 by the Scottish scientist James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879) and first demonstrated in 1888 by the German physicist Heinrich Rudolf Hertz (1857-1894). This discovery revolutionized the field of telecommunications and eventually enabled the long-distance transmission of heat, a key principle of the microwave oven.
- The theory of general relativity. This theory of gravitational fields and linear reference frames was formulated by German physicist Albert Einstein (1879–1955) between 1915 and 1916. The theory of general relativity offers a new understanding of reality, as it proposes that the geometry of the universe (known as “space-time”) is affected by the presence of matter, just as a cloth stretched out on which a heavy object is placed would be.
- Spaceflight. The possibility of going into outer space and landing on the moon, as was done on several occasions in the second half of the 20th century, is a product of the intersection of engineering and scientific knowledge. It requires not only physical calculations and chemical formulations, but also a precise understanding of astronomical orbits and human physiology itself, since astronauts are subjected to conditions that few human beings have been able to experience and whose effects on the body are unknown.
- The rise of modern medicine. Thanks to centuries of accumulated knowledge about the functioning of the human body, as well as modern advances in biochemistry and pharmaceuticals, medicine has become a vast field of application for scientific knowledge. This has made it possible not only to perform surgical operations with minimal risk to the patient, but also to develop medications and better understand diseases.
- Petroleum refining. This process is extremely important in the modern world, as it allows us to separate the various hydrocarbons that make up petroleum and produce numerous derivatives, such as kerosene, plastic, and gasoline. However, obtaining this knowledge required centuries of chemical study of matter, from the era of medieval alchemists to modern laboratories.
- See also: Empirical knowledge
What should a scientific theory be like?
A scientific theory is a rational explanation of a natural phenomenon, obtained, tested, and corroborated through the scientific method. Most theories have been verified through experimentation, so they are not hypotheses or speculations, as their name might suggest, but genuine scientific demonstrations.
A scientific theory must be:
- Precise. Your deductions must be consistent with the experiments and observations you have made.
- Fruitful. It should produce new research results and, ultimately, new knowledge and perspectives.
- Simple. It should organize ideas and descriptions, which in isolation would generate confusion, to give them meaning and consistency.
- Universal. Its consequences must transcend particular laws and observations and be generally applicable.
