Cohesion is the property of a text that allows for easy and rapid understanding thanks to the organization of ideas. It is one of the desirable properties of any text, along with coherence (non-contradiction) and adequacy (use of formulas appropriate for the context of the communication).
Cohesion is an internal property of the text, that is, it refers to the way in which different fragments relate to each other, and not necessarily to a reference external to the text itself.
- See also: Adequacy, coherence and cohesion
There are different mechanisms that allow the cohesion of a text:
Lexical cohesion
Within a text, words and their referents are related to each other when talking about the same topic.
Example:
Conifers are evolutionarily ancient trees or shrubs that appeared hundreds of millions of years before broad-leaved trees. The word “conifer” comes from the Greek “conus” and “ferre,” which translates as “bearing cones,” alluding to the main characteristic of Coniferopsidae: the reproductive structures called cones, or more commonly, pine cones. The plants that make up this collection are the dominant forest species in cold, high-mountain climates.
In the example, we see words from the same referential field, such as trees, shrubs, plants, and forest. In other words, lexical cohesion occurs when an entire text addresses the same topic or related topics.
Discursive mechanisms
Connectors : These are words that connect different sentences or parts of sentences, with a specific relationship. Depending on the relationship they establish, they can be:
- Disjunctives: These are the coordinating links (or, or) and other expressions that indicate a separation or opposition of ideas internal to the text.
The moments we experience can be moments in a process that began before , or they can inaugurate a new process that somehow refers to the past. (Paulo Freira, “Pedagogy of Hope”)
- Causal: They indicate a cause-effect relationship .
They were always raised under the care of their grandmother, with her loving care. Because of this , parting ways with her was very difficult.
- Concessive: They set a limit to what has already been said, and can also signal opposition.
Although official announcements have been made on the subject, a large part of the population remains ignorant.
- Temporal: They can indicate a relationship of anteriority (before, long ago, at the beginning), simultaneity (meanwhile, at the same time, currently), or posteriority (later, after, then). They allow the different events described in the text to be related temporally.
Initially , the company offered to cover all production costs. However, the client preferred to outsource production, so the company currently handles only marketing.
- Locatives: These allow us to relate different objects according to their position in space, proximity, or distance. To facilitate understanding of the text, they are primarily used in descriptions.
Although it is now used as a hotel, the palace still retains the layout it had when it belonged to the Count’s family: at the entrance , a large reception hall that opened into two rooms on either side , and a staircase at the back . At the top of the staircase, on the first floor, there is a corridor along which the bedrooms are located.
- Clarifying: They allow to relate a concept or idea and its more detailed explanation.
Many young people, upon beginning their university studies, encounter new experiences, both in terms of their social life and their academic content .
- Argumentative: These allow the different parts of a logical explanation or argument to be linked . They are connectors, such as “in effect,” “of course,” “for example,” and “in particular.” They are found in academic texts and essays , as they are texts that argue for or against a position.
“The difference between the internal history proposed by Christianity and the history proposed by philology, a relatively new discipline, was precisely what made modern philology possible, and Renan knew this perfectly well. Indeed , whenever one speaks of “philology” in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, one must understand the new philology, whose principal successes included comparative grammar, the new classification or grouping of languages into families, and the rejection of the divine origins of language.” (Edward Said, “Orientalism”)
Pronouns : The subjects and objects of sentences can be replaced with pronouns, establishing a relationship between the different sentences, since they refer to each other. This also avoids unnecessary repetition. Example:
The next day would be Christmas, and as the three headed to the space station, the father and mother were worried. It was the boy’s first flight in space, his first rocket ride, and they wanted it to be as pleasant as possible. When customs forced them to leave the gift because it was a few kilos over the maximum weight limit, along with the little tree with its beautiful white candles, they felt something very important to celebrate this holiday had been taken away from them. The boy was waiting for his parents at the terminal. When they arrived, they were muttering something about the interplanetary officials. (Ray Bradbury, “A Christmas Carol”)
In the example, possessive pronouns (“it was their first trip”) and demonstrative pronouns (“when they arrived”) are used.
Hypernyms and Hyponyms : Hypernyms are words that refer to a class of objects or phenomena, while hyponyms refer to something more specific. For example, “animal” is a hypernym of “dog” but is a hyponym of “living being.” When writing a text, hypernyms and hyponyms allow you to create lexical networks that facilitate comprehension.
Crabs are crustaceans characterized by having five pairs of legs. This means they are decapods (deca means five and podos means legs). Decapods include lobsters, shrimp, and prawns. Crabs are also arthropods, meaning they have an exoskeleton made of chitin, which gives them structure and protection.
In the example, the word “crab” is related to three hypernyms: crustaceans, decapods, and arthropods. In turn, “decapods” is related to other hyponyms: lobsters, shrimps, and prawns. This creates a lexical network that allows crabs to be logically linked to other species.
Synonyms : Nouns can be replaced, in addition to pronouns, by other nouns or expressions that have the same or similar meaning. Example:
Morning is a pleasant time for Delfina. The beginning of the day puts her in a good mood, like all beginnings, because of the opportunities it offers in the future.
In the example, “beginning of the day” is used as a synonym for “tomorrow,” which allows “tomorrow” to be related to the concept “beginning.”
Ellipsis : This is the elimination of a part of a sentence. It is one of the mechanisms of cohesion, since the element being eliminated is usually present in previous or subsequent sentences.
Beyond the gate is the beasts’ enclosure. They sleep at night. A stream runs through it, and they can drink water. Beyond, as far as the eye can see, apple trees stretch out. The trees follow one another endlessly like a sea of vegetation. (Haruki Murakami, “The World’s End”)
In the example, the ellipsis is given by the implicit subject in the sentences after the mention of “the beasts.”
Repetition : In some cases, rather than avoiding repetition, it is deliberately sought for stylistic reasons or to facilitate understanding. Example:
The valley, strictly speaking, wasn’t a valley at all, but a dusty basin bordered by white, inhospitable hills. The valley, strictly speaking, had only two seasons: winter and summer, and both were extreme, bitter, almost merciless. (Miguel Delibes, “The Shroud”)
Discourse markers : These are linguistic units that remain unchanged and serve syntactic functions in the relationship between sentences. In addition to the connectives listed at the beginning of this list, discourse markers can include:
Information structuring : These are formulas that allow us to introduce comments (well, that said), indicate openings in the discourse (first of all, to begin with), the continuity of the reasoning (with respect to that, on the other hand, likewise) or a closure (lastly, finally).
First of all , I would like to thank my parents, who always supported and helped me, even during the most difficult times. Furthermore , the colleagues I’ve met throughout my career have always given me good advice, even though we barely knew each other. Finally , I want to emphasize the importance of the welcome this institution has given me, fostering my professional development.
Reformulators : They can serve explanatory, corrective, distancing, or recapitulative functions. For example:
The witness maintained from the outset that he had never seen the robber’s face. However , he pointed out without hesitation that he had a tattoo on his neck. In other words , he didn’t see the face specifically, but he did provide information necessary for his identification. In any case , his testimony is valuable to this investigation.
Argumentative operators : They can be used for reinforcement or specification. Example:
The press has attempted to convey the opinion that there isn’t enough product variety in the market, when in reality, the variety of both products and their different qualities can be seen in the merchandise entering the market. In fact , there is currently a greater variety of brands than last year, in all of the categories analyzed.
Conversational markers : They indicate metadiscourses within the text, including possible opinions of the interlocutor.
News about mosquito-borne diseases has concerned the population. Mothers are certainly concerned for their children’s health and should take precautions. Apparently , these precautions are being taken, as sales of mosquito repellent have increased in recent months.
Grammatical mechanisms : No less important in textual cohesion is grammatical agreement between nouns , verbs , adjectives , and adverbs . This goes hand in hand with the use of pronouns that match the noun being replaced. Textual cohesion also requires maintaining the same verb tense throughout the text, unless a change is necessary to indicate different points in time.
The new government’s main concerns relate to stabilizing the economy , which has been severely affected by the recent global crises.
